TCP States

Connection Establishment

1. Connection Request By Client: The client chooses an ISN for its transmissions of 4,567. It sends a SYN with the Sequence Number field set to 4,567.

2. Acknowledgment and Connection Request By Server: The server chooses an ISN for its transmissions of 12,998. It receives the client's SYN. It sends a SYN+ACK with an Acknowledgment Number field value of 4,568 (one more than the client's ISN). This message has a Sequence Number field value of 12,998.

3. Acknowledgment By Client: The client sends an ACK with the Acknowledgment Number field set to 12,999.


This diagram illustrates the same three-way handshake connection establishment procedure introduced in Figure 211, except this time I have shown the Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields in each message so you can see how they are used by each of the two devices to establish initial sequence numbers for data exchange.


With the connection now established, the client will send data whose first byte will be given sequence number 4,568. The server's first byte of data will be numbered 12,999.

Connection Termination


TCP Connection Termination is implemented as follows:

1. One computer sends a FIN packet to the other computer including an ACK for the last data received (N).
2. The other computer sends an ACK number of N+1
3. It also sends a FIN with the sequence number of X.
4. The originating computer sends a packet with an ACK number of N+1. The connection is closed.

Another way to close the connection is for one computer to send a packet with the RST (reset) bit set which will tell the other computer to immediately terminate the connection.

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HTTP

About HTTP

Table of Contents

List of contents in this Blog

S.No	Protocol	Tools
1	Http	Nemesis

IP Addressing

Address Classes

There are 5 different address classes. You can determine which class any IP address is in by examining the first 4 bits of the IP address.

• Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126 decimal.
• Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191 decimal.
• Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223 decimal.
• Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239 decimal.
• Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254 decimal.

Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal, are reserved for loopback and for internal testing on a local machine; [You can test this: you should always be able to ping 127.0.0.1, which points to yourself] Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting; Class E addresses are reserved for future use. They should not be used for host addresses.

Now we can see how the Class determines, by default, which part of the IP address belongs to the network (N, in blue) and which part belongs to the node (n, in red).

• Class A -- NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn
• Class B -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn
• Class C -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn

Private Subnets

There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. The addresses are 10.0.0.0, Subnet Mask 255.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, Subnet Mask 255.240.0.0, and 192.168.0.0, Subnet Mask 255.255.0.0. These addresses are also notated 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or home LAN behind a NAT or proxy server or a router. It is always safe to use these because routers on the Internet by default will never forward packets coming from these addresses.

Subnet Masking

Node addresses of all "0"s and all "1"s are reserved for specifying the local network (when a host does not know its network address) and all hosts on the network (broadcast address), respectively.

To calculate the number of subnets or nodes, use the formula (2ⁿ-2) where n = number of bits in either field, and 2ⁿ represents 2 raised to the nth power.

Example:
11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000 255.255.224.000 Subnet Mask

In this example a 3 bit subnet mask was used. There are 6 (2³-2) subnets available with this size mask (remember that subnets with all 0's and all 1's are not allowed). Each subnet has 8190 (2¹³-2) nodes. Each subnet can have nodes assigned to any address between the Subnet address and the Broadcast address.

# bits	Subnet Mask	CIDR	# Subnets	# Hosts	Nets * Hosts
2	255.192.0.0	/10	2	4194302	8388604
3	255.224.0.0	/11	6	2097150	12582900
4	255.240.0.0	/12	14	1048574	14680036
5	255.248.0.0	/13	30	524286	15728580
6	255.252.0.0	/14	62	262142	16252804
7	255.254.0.0	/15	126	131070	16514820
8	255.255.0.0	/16	254	65534	16645636
9	255.255.128.0	/17	510	32766	16710660
10	255.255.192.0	/18	1022	16382	16742404
11	255.255.224.0	/19	2046	8190	16756740
12	255.255.240.0	/20	4094	4094	16760836
13	255.255.248.0	/21	8190	2046	16756740
14	255.255.252.0	/22	16382	1022	16742404
15	255.255.254.0	/23	32766	510	16710660
16	255.255.255.0	/24	65534	254	16645636
17	255.255.255.128	/25	131070	126	16514820
18	255.255.255.192	/26	262142	62	16252804
19	255.255.255.224	/27	524286	30	15728580
20	255.255.255.240	/28	1048574	14	14680036
21	255.255.255.248	/29	2097150	6	12582900
22	255.255.255.252	/30	4194302	2	8388604

SNMP

http://www.net-snmp.org/wiki/index.php/TUT:snmpwalk